1. The ancient Tamil kingdom known for its excellent maritime trade and pearl fisheries, also mentioned in the Indica of Megasthenes, was:
Option C: Pandya
The Pandya kingdom, located in the extreme south (modern Tamil Nadu), was famous for its pearl fisheries along the Gulf of Mannar. Megasthenes (Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court) mentioned the "Pandya kingdom" as ruled by a woman, highlighting its ancient maritime trade links with Rome and Greece. This makes it the correct answer.
2. The term 'Muvendar' used in Sangam literature refers to:
Option C: Three major Tamil dynasties (Chola, Chera, Pandya)
'Muvendar' literally translates to "three chiefs" or "three kings". In Sangam literature (300 BCE – 300 CE), it consistently refers to the three crowned rulers of the Tamil country: the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, who dominated the region and fought among themselves for supremacy.
3. The capital of the Chera kingdom during the Sangam age was:
Option B: Vanji (Karur)
The Chera kingdom, ruling over modern Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu, had its capital at Vanji, which is identified with the modern-day town of Karur. While Madurai was the Pandya capital and Uraiyur was an early Chola capital, Vanji was the definitive seat of Chera power.
4. Which of the following was the most important port of the Cholas during the early Sangam period?
Option C: Puhar (Kaveripoompattinam)
Puhar, located at the mouth of the Kaveri river, was the premier port and the early Chola capital. The famous Tamil epic 'Silappadikaram' provides a vivid description of its prosperity. Muziris was Chera, Korkai was Pandya, and Arikamedu was a Roman trade centre (not a Chola capital).
5. The Badami Chalukya king who defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada and checked his southern expansion was:
Option C: Pulakeshin II
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II (610–642 CE) records his victory over Harshavardhana (Prabhakaravardhana's son) on the Narmada river. This battle prevented Harsha from conquering the Deccan and established the Chalukyas as a major power. This is a landmark event in early medieval Indian history.
6. The famous 'Ratha Temples' at Mahabalipuram were built by which Pallava ruler?
Option B: Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla)
The Pancha Rathas (five monolithic chariots) at Mahabalipuram are rock-cut temples attributed to Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE), also known as Mamalla (great wrestler). Mahabalipuram was named Mamallapuram after him. These rathas are prime examples of Pallava rock-cut architecture.
7. The practice of 'Ur' and 'Sabha' during the Chola period refers to:
Option C: Types of village assemblies (local self-government)
The Cholas had a highly efficient system of local administration. 'Ur' was the general village assembly in most villages, while 'Sabha' was an exclusive assembly of Brahmins (Brahmadeya villages). The Uttaramerur inscription provides detailed rules for the functioning of the Sabha.
8. 'Ghatikasthanam' under the Pallavas were famous for being:
Option A: Centres of advanced Vedic learning
Pallava rulers, especially Mahendravarman I, patronized 'Ghatikas' or colleges attached to temples. The most famous Ghatika at Kanchipuram attracted scholars from across India, including the great Dharmapala (who later became the head of Nalanda). They were prestigious institutions of higher learning.
9. The 'Kailasanatha Temple' at Ellora, though primarily a Rashtrakuta construction, shows direct influence of which southern style?
Option C: Pallava style
The Kailasanatha temple (c. 756–773 CE) was built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. Its single-rock excavation and sculptural style were heavily inspired by the Pallava rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram, especially the 'Descent of the Ganges' panel. This shows the southern influence on Deccan architecture.
10. The term 'Nadus' in the Chola administrative system referred to:
Option B: A group of villages forming a district
The Chola empire was divided into Mandalams (provinces) > Valanadus (divisions) > Nadus (districts) > Kurrams (group of villages) > Grama (villages). The Nadu was a crucial administrative unit for revenue collection and local governance, often led by a chief called 'Nadu-kari'.
11. The Pandya king who is credited with sending an embassy to the Roman Emperor Augustus is:
Option B: Pandyan (mentioned by Strabo)
The Greek geographer Strabo (63 BCE – 24 CE) mentions that a Pandyan king sent an embassy to Emperor Augustus at Rome. This indicates the strong trade and diplomatic relations between the Tamil kingdoms and the Roman Empire during the Sangam age.
12. The Chalukya king who founded the city of Badami (Vatapi) and made it his capital was:
Option C: Pulakeshin I
Pulakeshin I (543–566 CE) was the founder of the Badami Chalukya dynasty. He fortified the hill fortress of Vatapi (modern Badami in Karnataka) and performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to assert his sovereign status. His descendants ruled from Badami for nearly two centuries.
13. The famous 'Gangikonda Cholapuram' temple was built by Rajendra Chola I to commemorate:
Option C: His successful march to the Ganges river
Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE) led an expedition to North India and reached the Ganges river, defeating several rulers. To celebrate this victory, he assumed the title 'Gangai Kondan' (conqueror of the Ganges) and built a new capital named 'Gangikonda Cholapuram' with a magnificent Shiva temple.
14. The Pallava king who was initially a Jain and later converted to Shaivism under the influence of Appar (Tirunavukkarasar) was:
Option C: Mahendravarman I
Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) was a patron of Jainism in his early life but later converted to Shaivism under the influence of the Nayanar saint Appar. He built several rock-cut Shiva temples and authored the Sanskrit play 'Mattavilasa Prahasana' (The Drunkard's Jest), which satirizes Buddhist and Jain monks.
15. The Chera king famous for the 'Pattini cult' (worship of Kannagi) and mentioned in the Silappadikaram is:
Option B: Senguttuvan (Cheran Chenguttuvan)
The Chera king Chenguttuvan (also known as 'Kadal Pirakkottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan') is the hero of the Tamil epic 'Silappadikaram'. He is credited with introducing the worship of Kannagi (Pattini) as an ideal woman and building a temple for her. He is also known for his military expedition to the Himalayas.
16. The Rashtrakuta king who defeated the Pratihara king Nagabhata II and the Pala king Dharmapala was:
Option B: Govinda III
Govinda III (793–814 CE) was the most powerful Rashtrakuta ruler. He successfully campaigned against the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II and the Pala king Dharmapala, establishing Rashtrakuta supremacy in North India. His victories weakened the Tripartite Struggle among these three dynasties for Kanauj.
17. The famous bronze sculpture of 'Nataraja' (dancing Shiva) reached its artistic perfection during the:
Option C: Chola period
The Chola period (9th–13th century) is renowned for its exquisite bronze sculptures using the 'lost wax' (cire perdue) technique. The Nataraja (Lord of Dance) bronze, depicting Shiva performing the Tandava (cosmic dance) within a ring of fire, reached its peak under the Cholas, especially during the reign of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
18. Which Pallava ruler is credited with the construction of the 'Shore Temple' at Mahabalipuram?
Option C: Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha)
The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was built by Narasimhavarman II (700–728 CE), also known as Rajasimha Pallava. Unlike earlier rock-cut temples, this is a structural temple built with dressed stone, facing the Bay of Bengal, and is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
19. The Pandya king who defeated the combined forces of the Cholas and the Cheras at the battle of 'Talaiyalanganam' was:
Option C: Nedunjeliyan II
The battle of Talaiyalanganam (c. 130 CE) is described in the Tamil epic 'Pattinappalai'. Nedunjeliyan II, also known as 'Talaiyalanganathu Ceruvendra Nedunjeliyan', defeated a confederacy of the Cholas, Cheras, and five other minor chieftains, establishing Pandya supremacy over the Tamil country.
20. The administrative division 'Valanadu' during the Chola period referred to:
Option C: A division comprising several Nadus (districts)
The Chola administrative hierarchy was: Mandalam (province) > Valanadu (division) > Nadu (district) > Kurram (group of villages) > Grama (village). Valanadu was an intermediate level, often governed by a high-ranking official or a member of the royal family, facilitating better control over larger territories.
21. The 'Aihole inscription' of Pulakeshin II was composed by which court poet and is written in which language and script?
Option C: Ravikirti – Sanskrit – Kannada script
The Aihole inscription (634–635 CE) is a famous eulogy (prashasti) of Chalukya king Pulakeshin II, composed by his court poet Ravikirti. It is written in Sanskrit language but uses the Kannada script. The inscription describes Pulakeshin's victory over Harshavardhana, along with details about the poet's own achievements and knowledge of grammar and poetry.
22. Which Chola king assumed the title 'Maduraikonda' (Conqueror of Madurai) after defeating the Pandya king?
Option B: Parantaka I
Parantaka I (907–955 CE) was a prominent early Chola ruler who defeated the Pandya king Rajasimha II and captured Madurai. He assumed the title 'Maduraikonda' (also called 'Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda' – conqueror of Madurai and Sri Lanka). However, he faced a serious reversal later when the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III defeated him at the Battle of Takkolam.
23. The famous 'Vettuvan Koil' (Sculptor's Cave) at Kalugumalai, an unfinished masterpiece of rock-cut architecture, belongs to which dynasty?
Option B: Pandya
The Vettuvan Koil at Kalugumalai (Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu) is a remarkable unfinished rock-cut temple of the early Pandyas (c. 8th century CE). The 'Vettuvan' in Tamil means 'sculptor' or 'cutter of stone'. Only the upper half of the temple was completed, leaving the lower half unexcavated, providing unique insights into ancient rock-cutting techniques.
24. The Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733–744 CE) is specially remembered for:
Option C: Capturing Kanchipuram thrice but returning the temple wealth
Vikramaditya II is famous for capturing the Pallava capital Kanchipuram on three occasions (c. 733, 740, 742 CE). However, unlike typical conquerors, he did not loot or destroy temples. His inscriptions record that he returned the wealth taken from the Kailasanatha temple, earning him great respect. He also patronized the construction of the Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal.
25. The Chera king 'Kadal Pirakkottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan' (one who brought the sea into the rampart) is referred to in which famous Tamil epic?
Option B: Silappadikaram
The Silappadikaram (The Tale of an Anklet) by Ilango Adigal is a Tamil epic that mentions the Chera king Senguttuvan with the epithet 'Kadal Pirakkottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan'. This title refers to his engineering feat of cutting a passage through the Western Ghats to connect the Arabian Sea to the interior, effectively bringing the sea to his fort.
26. The 'Mukteshvara Temple' and 'Kailashnath Temple' at Kanchipuram, representing the transition from rock-cut to structural architecture, were built by:
Option C: Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha)
Narasimhavarman II (700–728 CE) built the Kailashnath Temple (also called Rajasimheshvaram) in Kanchipuram. This temple marks a significant transition from rock-cut cave temples to structural stone temples in South India. The Mukteshvara Temple was also built around this period. These temples feature a Vimana (tower) and a Mandapa (pillared hall), influencing later Chola architecture.
27. The 'Tiruvalangadu' copper plates of Rajendra Chola I provide detailed information about:
Option C: The genealogy of the Chola dynasty from Karikala to Rajendra
The Tiruvalangadu copper plates (c. 1018 CE) are a critical source for Chola history. They provide a detailed genealogy tracing the Chola dynasty from the legendary king Karikala (Sangam age) down to Rajendra Chola I. The inscription also mentions the construction of a new capital, Gangikonda Cholapuram, and various conquests of Rajendra.
28. The 'Kirtivarman' who performed the Hiranyagarbha ritual to legitimize his rule was a ruler of which dynasty?
Option C: Chalukya of Badami
Kirtivarman I (566–597 CE), son of Pulakeshin I, was a Badami Chalukya ruler. He performed the Hiranyagarbha (golden womb) ritual, a Vedic ceremony where the king is symbolically reborn from a golden cow, signifying the legitimization of his rule and the elevation of his kshatriya status. This ritual was also performed by other dynasties like the Rashtrakutas and later by the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
29. The 'Undavalli Caves' near Vijayawada, a fine example of rock-cut architecture, are associated with which dynasty?
Option C: Vishnukundina
The Undavalli Caves (c. 4th–5th century CE) near Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, are attributed to the Vishnukundina dynasty, a lesser-known but significant power in the Deccan after the Satavahanas. The caves feature a magnificent four-story rock-cut structure with a large reclining Vishnu sculpture. The dynasty later contributed to the development of the early Chalukyan style.
30. The term 'Brahmadeya' in the context of the Chola and Pallava inscriptions means:
Option C: Land gifted to Brahmins, often with special privileges
'Brahmadeya' was a tax-free land grant given to Brahmins, usually for their maintenance and for promoting Vedic learning and rituals. These grants created autonomous Brahmin settlements called 'Agraharas' or 'Chaturvedimangalams'. In such villages, the local assembly (Sabha) was dominated by the Brahmin donees. This practice increased during the Pallava and Chola periods.
31. The 'Karumandurai' inscription of the Pandya king Nedunjeliyan refers to a unique irrigation practice. What was it?
Option C: Use of sluices and dams in tank irrigation
The Karumandurai inscription (c. 770 CE) provides technical details about the construction of sluices (tumaru) and dams (kallanai) for tank irrigation. It mentions a dispute regarding the regulation of water flow and the use of stone sluices in the tank. This shows the advanced hydraulic engineering knowledge of the early Pandyas, including precise calculations for water distribution.
32. The Chalukya king 'Vijayaditya' (696–733 CE) is known for constructing a series of temples at which site, forming an architectural gallery?
Option C: Mahakuta
Vijayaditya (son of Vikramaditya I) built several temples at Mahakuta (near Badami), creating what is often called an 'architectural gallery' or 'museum' of early Chalukyan styles. The Mahakuta Pillar inscription provides details of his reign. James Fergusson, the famous art historian, described these temples as representing the transition from the rock-cut to the structural phase. He also constructed the Sangameshvara Temple at Pattadakal.
33. The Chola official position 'Perundanam' refers to:
Option C: A body of high-ranking military officers
The 'Perundanam' (literally 'great group') was a corporate body of senior military commanders and nobles in the Chola empire. They advised the king on matters of war and administration, commanded large army divisions, and were often granted high-sounding titles. A related term 'Sirudanam' referred to lower-ranking officers. This system helped the Cholas maintain a well-organized feudal military structure.
34. The Pandya king 'Varaguna II' (c. 862–885 CE) suffered a major defeat at the hands of which Pallava ally, leading to the decline of Pandya power?
Option C: Aparajita Pallava
The Battle of Sripurambiyam (c. 885 CE) was a three-way conflict involving the Pandya Varaguna II, the Pallava Aparajita, and the Chola Aditya I. Varaguna II initially allied with Aparajita but was defeated when Aditya I switched sides. The Pallava king Aparajita emerged victorious but was killed by Aditya I shortly after. This defeat significantly weakened the Pandyas and paved the way for Chola resurgence under Aditya I and Parantaka I.
35. The famous 'Lad Khan Temple' at Aihole, one of the earliest Chalukyan temples, derives its name from a mistake. What is its original significance?
Option B: It was originally a royal assembly hall (mandapa)
The Lad Khan Temple (c. 450–500 CE) is misnamed after a Jain layman who lived there in the 19th century. It was originally a royal assembly hall (sabha mandapa) with a unique design—a pillared hall with a small shrine at the rear. The roof is shaped like a stepped pyramid. It was later consecrated as a Shiva temple. This temple represents the earliest phase of Chalukyan experimentation before the development of the Dravidian vimana.
36. The Chera-Pandya conflict known as the 'Battle of Venni' (c. 130 CE) resulted in the death of which Chera king?
Option B: Imayavaramban Nedun Cheralathan
The Battle of Venni was fought between the Pandya king Nedunjeliyan II and a confederacy of the Chera and Chola forces. The Chera king Imayavaramban Nedun Cheralathan (son of Udiyan Cheral, the 'Perum Cheral Irumporai') was wounded and later died from his injuries. The battle is described in detail in the Purananuru, a Sangam anthology. The Cheras never fully recovered from this defeat during the Sangam period.
37. The Pallava inscription at 'Udayendiram' (c. 775 CE) provides what unique evidence about early medieval South Indian society?
Option C: A detailed case of a king overriding a village assembly's decision
The Udayendiram inscription of Pallava king Nandivarman II provides a remarkable example of royal intervention in local affairs. The village assembly (Sabha) of Udayendiram had passed a resolution that was contested. The king, after hearing the appeal, overruled the assembly's decision and issued a royal order modifying it. This inscription is crucial for understanding the balance of power between the monarch and local self-governing bodies in Pallava times.
38. The Chalukya queen 'Lokamahadevi' built the famous 'Virupaksha Temple' at Pattadakal to commemorate:
Option C: King Vikramaditya II's victory over the Pallavas
The Virupaksha Temple (c. 740 CE) at Pattadakal (UNESCO site) was built by Queen Lokamahadevi, chief queen of Vikramaditya II, to celebrate her husband's victory over the Pallavas and the capture of Kanchipuram. The temple was modeled on the Kailashnath Temple of Kanchipuram, symbolizing Chalukya appropriation of Pallava architectural style. It features exquisite sculpture and marks the culmination of early Chalukyan architecture.
39. The term 'Niyoga' appears in some Chola inscriptions. What did it refer to?
Option C: A royal order that could override customary law
'Niyoga' in Chola inscriptions refers to a royal decree or executive order issued by the king that could supersede existing customary laws and local assembly decisions. It represents the ultimate sovereign authority of the Chola monarch. The 'Tiruvalangadu' plates mention that Rajendra Chola I used 'Niyoga' to settle complex disputes. This concept shows the tension between royal prerogative and customary legal traditions in medieval South India.
40. The 'Pallankovil' inscription of the Pandya king Maravarman Rajasimha II provides direct evidence of:
Option C: A land dispute resolved by the 'Sabha' using written records
The Pallankovil inscription (c. 900 CE) is a remarkable document that records a land dispute heard by the village Sabha (assembly). Crucially, the Sabha examined written records (ancient palm-leaf documents) to reach a verdict. This is one of the earliest epigraphical evidences from South India showing the use of documentary evidence in judicial proceedings and the sophisticated record-keeping practices of the Pandya period.
41. The 'Velvikudi' inscription of the Pandya king Nedunjadaiyan (Varaguna I) provides the earliest known reference to which important socio-economic concept in South India?
Option C: Kudimakkal (tenant-cultivators with hereditary rights)
The Velvikudi inscription (c. 770 CE) is a crucial record for understanding rural social structure in Pandya country. It mentions 'Kudimakkal' — a class of hereditary tenant-cultivators who had specific rights over the land they tilled, including transferable rights. This is distinct from slaves or landless laborers. The inscription records a restoration of land to Brahmins after it had been encroached upon, showing the tension between Brahmin landowners and Kudimakkar rights. This concept later evolved into the 'Kaniyatchi' right system in medieval Kerala.
42. The 'Mandalas' or 'Dikpalas' sculptures found in Pallava temples represent a complex cosmological framework. Which specific Pallava temple contains a unique circular arrangement of these directional deities inside the main sanctum?
Option B: Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram
The Vaikuntha Perumal Temple (c. 730 CE, built by Nandivarman II Pallavamalla) has a unique three-tiered vimana. Inside the sanctum, on the first floor, there is a circular arrangement of eight Dikpalas (directional guardians) directly below the presiding deity's image. This arrangement symbolizes the king as the center of the universe (Chakravartin), with the eight guardians protecting the eight directions. This cosmological layout is not found in any other Pallava temple and reflects the influence of tantric and Vaishnava cosmology. The temple also has a historic gallery of Pallava kings in sculptural form on the inner walls.
43. The Chola general 'Vira Pandya' (also known as 'Tondaiman Chakravarti') is an enigmatic figure because:
Option C: He was originally a Pandya prince who was defeated, captured, and then rose to become the highest-ranking general under Rajendra Chola I
Vira Pandya is one of the most fascinating figures in Chola history. Initially a Pandya prince (probably son of Amarabhujanga), he was defeated by Rajendra Chola I in a campaign to suppress the Pandyas. Instead of being executed or imprisoned, he was absorbed into the Chola military hierarchy. He rose to become the 'Senapati' (commander-in-chief) and led successful campaigns for Rajendra in Sri Lanka and the Kadaram (Srivijaya) expedition. His story illustrates the pragmatic assimilation policies of the Cholas. The Tirumalai inscription records his donations as a high-ranking Chola officer bearing the title 'Pandya-dharani-varaha'.
44. The term 'Pattinam' in early Chera inscriptions, as opposed to 'Ur', had a specific urban connotation. Which unique functional distinction did a 'Pattinam' have compared to other settlement types?
Option B: It was a coastal port-town with an official 'Pattinappulavar' (town poet) appointed by the king
Chera inscriptions (especially from the 8th–10th centuries) distinguish between 'Ur' (inland agricultural villages), 'Kurram' (group of villages), and 'Pattinam' (coastal trade ports). A unique feature of a 'Pattinam' under Chera rule was the appointment of an official 'Pattinappulavar' by the king — a court poet specifically assigned to that port-town. The Pattinappulavar's duties included composing eulogies for the town's merchants, recording port tariffs, and maintaining trade records in poetic form. This practice is mentioned in the 'Pathirruppattu' of the Sangam era and continued into the medieval Chera (Kulasekhara) period. This institutionalized linkage between literature and trade is unique to the Chera country.
45. The 'Mana-boji' or 'Mana-vedi' Brahmins mentioned in later Pandya inscriptions represent a distinct sub-caste with a unique ritual function. What was that function?
Option B: They were experts in the judicial ordeal (divya) by fire and poison
'Mana-boji' (literally 'house-eaters' or 'those who eat in the house') and 'Mana-vedi' were sub-groups of Brahmins in late Pandya times (13th–14th centuries) who specialized in administering judicial ordeals (divyas). When criminal cases lacked clear evidence, a king could order an ordeal — the accused would be asked to hold a red-hot iron (agni-divya) or drink poison (visha-divya). Only Mana-boji Brahmins were authorized to prepare the ordeal materials, supervise the ritual, and pronounce the judgment based on the outcome. This specialized function is recorded in the 'Dalavaypuram' and 'Sinnamanur' inscriptions, showing the intersection of law, religion, and caste in medieval Pandya society. This practice was abolished by the British in the 19th century.
46. The Chalukya king 'Vikramaditya VI' (of the later Western Chalukya or Kalyani branch) is famous for the 'Vikrama-Chalukya' era but is also credited with a unique military tactical innovation. What was it?
Option B: The systematic use of fortified mobile camps (Kataka) moved by bullock carts
Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126 CE), though primarily a Western Chalukya ruler (who held power in northern Karnataka and made Kalyani his capital), waged long wars against the Hoysalas and the Cholas. His inscriptions describe the use of 'Kataka' — entire fortified camps that could be dismantled and moved using thousands of bullock carts. These mobile camps included a royal tent (vimana), armory, treasury, kitchen, and even a movable temple for daily worship. This logistical innovation allowed his army to campaign for extended periods without relying on fixed supply chains. The 'Vikramankadevacharita' by Bilhana mentions this innovation, which was later adopted by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara Empire. This question tests the continuity of Deccan military practices.
47. The 'Kudavolai' (pot-ticket) system, famous from the Uttaramerur inscription, was a unique electoral method. What specific administrative requirement triggered the use of this system in Chola villages?
Option A: The need to fill vacancies in the 'Variyam' (village committees) when the term expired
The Uttaramerur inscription (c. 920 CE, reign of Parantaka I) provides a detailed constitution for the village Sabha. The 'Kudavolai' system was used specifically for electing members to the various 'Variyams' standing committees (e.g., Tank Variyam, Garden Variyam, Gold Variyam). Members were elected for a fixed term (usually one year) and were ineligible for re-election for the next term. The process involved writing names on tickets, placing them in a pot, and having a young boy draw them. This system was triggered by the expiry of the term or the death/removal of a member. It did not apply to other village decisions. This is the only known example of a lottery-based electoral system from medieval India and is cited as evidence of sophisticated local democracy.
48. The 'Pandyas' in the 13th century split into two rival branches — the 'Sundara' and 'Vira' Pandyas. What was the immediate cause of this succession dispute?
Option C: The principle of 'junior kingship' (Kudumi) where two heirs claimed the right to rule jointly as unequal partners
The Pandya succession crisis of the mid-13th century (c. 1250–1310 CE) originated from the practice of appointing a 'junior king' (Kudumi or Ilavarasan) alongside the senior king. Unlike the Cholas who had a clear primogeniture system, the Pandyas often had co-rulers (e.g., Maravarman Sundara I and his son or brother). After the death of Maravarman Sundara III (c. 1255 CE), two contenders — Kulasekhara Sundara (supported by one faction) and Vira Pandya (supported by another) — both claimed the junior kingship had entitled them to succeed. This split led to civil war, with the 'Sundara' branch holding Tirunelveli and the 'Vira' branch holding Madurai at different times. The Vijayanagara invasion of 1370 CE finally ended this 120-year schism. Marco Polo visiting India around 1288–1293 CE mentions the "two kings of Malabar" — likely a confused reference to this Pandya split.
49. The 'Tiruppudaimarudur' inscription of the Chera king Sthanu Ravi (c. 844 CE) is historically significant because it provides the earliest reference to:
Option C: The 'Manigramam' – a powerful trans-regional merchant guild
The Tiruppudaimarudur inscription (near Kollam, Kerala) is the earliest epigraphical evidence for the 'Manigramam' merchant guild. It records an agreement between the Chera king Sthanu Ravi and the local Christian (Syrian Christian) merchant community of Kollam, who were organized under the Manigramam guild. This guild specialized in long-distance trade, particularly with West Asia and Southeast Asia. They had their own legal codes, weight standards, and even a military wing. The Manigramam, along with the 'Ayyavole' (Ainurruvar) and 'Anjuvannam' guilds, dominated Indian Ocean trade from the 9th to 14th centuries. This inscription also shows early Chera patronage of diverse religious groups, including Christians and Jews (who had copper plates granting them privileges, known as the 'Tharisapalli' plates).
50. The enigmatic 'Kalabhra Interregnum' (c. 3rd to 6th century CE) is a dark period in Tamil history. Which dynasty that later rose to power claimed in its inscriptions to have "destroyed the Kalabhras" and restored order?
Option D: Both the Pallavas (under Simhavishnu) and the Pandyas (under Kadungon) claimed this
The Kalabhras were a non-Tamil, possibly Buddhist or Jain, ruling group that disrupted the traditional three Tamil dynasties for nearly 300 years. Very little is known about them as they left no inscriptions. Their end is recorded in the claims of both the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. The Pallava king Simhavishnu (c. 575–615 CE) is credited in the Kasakudi plates with "destroying the Kalabhras" and re-establishing Brahmanical order. Simultaneously, the Pandya king Kadungon (c. 590–620 CE) is praised in the Velvikudi plates for "exterminating the Kalabhras." This contradiction suggests that the Kalabhras controlled different parts of Tamil country and were defeated by both dynasties in separate campaigns. The Kalabhra period marks the transition from Sangam age to the Pallava-Pandya dominance and saw the decline of Buddhism and Jainism in the Tamil region. This question tests the ability to reconcile conflicting historical claims — a key UPSC-level skill.